May 04, 2007
David McCollough's biography of John Adams
I am currently enjoying David McCollough’s biography of John Adams. This book has a lot to recommend it. Even if you have never been particularly intrigued by the character of John Adams, McCollough’s biography gives a detailed portrait of America’s revolutionary era.
For general readers, one of the most interesting topics covered in the book is the relationship between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Adams and Jefferson were alternately friends, then rivals, and finally friends again in their final years.
In some ways, the two men were remarkably alike: they shared a love of books, and a dedication to the ideals of the Revolution. In other ways, however, they could not have been more different: John Adams was outspoken and sometimes caustic; Jefferson was tactful to the point of being circumspect. They also came from different rungs of the socio-economic scale. Adams was a middle-class, self-made man. Jefferson inherited his considerable wealth from his father (though he himself had lifelong problems with overspending and debt.)
Adams and Jefferson became close friends during an extended stay in France in the service of the American government. However, the philosophical differences between them became apparent when both ran for president. In the election of l796, the main point of political division was between the Federalists and the Democrat-Republicans. The former favored a strong central government, while the latter wanted to preserve states’ rights, even at the expense of hampering the federal government.
Adams generally sided with the Federalists, while Jefferson was a leader of the Democrat-Republican faction. Jefferson and Adams were rival candidates in the 1796 election; and Adams eked out a narrow victory, with Jefferson coming in second place. By the rules of the time, the runner-up became vice president. The inauguration of 1797 therefore began the only administration U.S. history in which the president and the vice president were of different, opposing parties.
During Adams’ administration, American shipping became embroiled in the ongoing war between Great Britain and France. In an effort to deprive the British of goods from America, the French navy commandeered American merchant vessels on the high seas. The French government was unapologetic about this blatant disregard of international norms, and talk of war with France filled the American press.
Here too, there were sharp differences between the Federalists and the Democrat-Republicans. Federalists like Alexander Hamilton were pro-British, and argued for a hard line against France. Democrat-Republicans like Jefferson were pro-French, and favored accommodation with France, despite its violations of American shipping.
President Adams was a centrist in this debate. He wanted to avoid war with France, but not at all costs. While he continued negotiations with Paris, he simultaneously pushed forward with plans for a navy and a standing army. This was perhaps the first historical instance of an American “peace through strength” strategy.
Jefferson declared Adams’ plans to establish a regular military as warmongering. Although peace through strength has become an accepted doctrine of international relations, Jefferson saw the tactic as contradictory: How could a military buildup possibly be construed as a peace strategy?
History proved Adams correct in this debate. War with France was averted, and the U.S. military demonstrated its importance on numerous occasions. (Jefferson himself put the navy to use after he became president, in a war against the Barbary pirates.)
The differences between Adams and Jefferson presaged many of the debates that would dominate American politics for years to come: peace through strength vs. diplomacy, trade vs. politics, etc. During the height of the tensions with France, Adams signed an alien control and sedition act, which restricted free speech and placed restrictions on French émigrés living in the U.S. The parallels to current homeland security issues are abundant and obvious.
I have of course left out a lot of details. For the rest, you will have to check out David McCullough’s book. It is well worth your time.
