UNDERSTANDING THE MIDDLE EAST:
History, Religion, and the Clash of Cultures
400 pages
Copyright © 2007 by Beechmont Crest Publishing
First edition, 2007
0-9748330-6-1
Introduction
Since September 11, 2001, the English-speaking world has become intensely interested in the Middle East. However, a cursory glance at the headlines always seems to produce more questions than answers: Where did Islamic militancy come from? How did Saddam Hussein rise to power in Iraq? Why do the Israelis and the Palestinians hate each other so much? This book seeks to answer these questions.
Very few readers will be able to remember a time when the troubles in the Middle East did not appear frequently in headlines. Even before the post-9/11 wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, there were other conflicts. Most readers will recall the Persian Gulf War of 1990-91 and the West’s subsequent confrontations with Saddam Hussein. A slightly smaller number will remember the Iran-Iraq War that produced so much destruction throughout the 1980s, and the Iran hostage crisis of 1979-1980.
Before that there were the oil crises of the 1970s, the Yom Kippur War, the Six Day War, the Suez Crisis, and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. All the while, there were violent coups in Iraq, pathetic power struggles and intrigues within the Saudi royal family, and ideological battles between Islamic militants and moderate Muslims. And all this occurred just since World War II.
A complete and exhaustive history of the Middle East could easily occupy enough space for ten or a dozen books. The story of the Middle East begins around 3100 B.C., and includes a vast array of civilizations, rulers, religions, and prophets. Any of the topics included in this volume could be expanded into a separate book. My objective here was to present the aspects of the region’s history that will most interest Western, English-speaking readers. This means a focus on the conflicts that have dominated recent headlines: Islamic terrorism, the wars of Saddam Hussein’s Iraq, and the Palestinian intifadas. We will also look at some older conflicts: Europe’s wars with the Ottoman Turks, the Crusades, and the conquests of the first Muslim empires.
Books about the Middle East tend to fall into two broad categories. First, there are the books that present only the facts with no analysis. These books often leave the reader with lots of names and dates, but no real conclusions. Then there are the books that begin with an axe to grind, and present only the facts that support a particular thesis. These books leave the reader either indignant or self-satisfied (depending on his or her political persuasion), but with an incomplete grasp of complex issues.
I have chosen a middle ground in this regard. Understanding the Middle East is primarily an informational text. However, I have not hesitated to draw some conclusions where conclusions seemed warranted. Nevertheless, I have tried in all cases to present enough facts to allow the reader to draw conclusions of his or her own.
Conventions used in this book
Dates: When discussing specific dates in antiquity, I have used the abbreviations B.C. and A.D. rather than B.C.E. and C.E.
B.C. and A.D. have a close connection with Christianity and Western civilization, whereas B.C.E. and C.E. are considered to be more “culturally neutral.” I use the former set of date abbreviations not for religious or ideological reasons, but because these are the abbreviations that will be most familiar to the largest number of readers.
Transliterations: This book includes many Arabic personal names and terms. Authentic Arabic is written not with the Latin alphabet, but in Arabic script. Furthermore, there are many Arabic sounds that have no exact equivalent in our system of phonetics. Transliterated (Latinized) Arabic terms are often mere approximations. Their spellings do not accurately reflect the sounds that a native Arabic-speaker would make when pronouncing them. Perhaps because of this need to approximate, there is considerable variation in the transliteration of Arabic terms that appear frequently in the media. For the sake of standardization, I made certain choices in this area and stuck with them throughout the book.When discussing the Muslim holy book, I use the traditional transliterated term Koran. Alternatives include Quran and Qur’an. (The last one seems to be the most current.) Koran was the version most frequently used prior to the recent surge of interest in the Middle East.
To denote the minority branch of Islam, I use Shiite. More recent transliterations include Shia, Shi’a, and Shi’ite. They all refer to the same thing.
For transliterations as for dates, I chose the older words in order to prevent confusion among readers who may be less familiar with the newer terminology.
How this book is organized
Chapter 1: The Ancient Middle East: There were civilizations in the Middle East long before the current conflicts between Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. Chapter 1 describes the ancient Middle East, from the first rise of civilization, to Roman control over the area. In this chapter you will meet the ancient Sumerians, the Babylonians, the Persians, the Assyrians, and others. This chapter also includes the story of the ancient Hebrews.
Chapter 2: The Birth and Rise of Islam: Around 610 A.D., a prophet named Mohammed began to experience a series of revelations. Within a few decades, the religion he founded---Islam----dominated the Arabian Peninsula. Within a hundred years of Mohammed’s death, Islam had become a major religious and political force in the Middle East. Chapter 2 explores the origins of Islam, and its early years of expansion.
Chapter 3: Understanding the Crusades: This chapter discusses the Crusades. Although the last Crusades ended more than seven hundred years ago, these wars of the Middle Ages suddenly became a topic of conversation in the months following 9/11.
Chapter 4: The Basics of Islam: Islam is definitely one of the topics that could be expanded into a separate book. This chapter gives the reader the basics.
Chapter 5: A Millennium of Change in the Middle East: Chapter 5 examines the Christian Reconquest of Muslim Spain, the Mongol invasions, the Ottoman Empire, and how the twentieth century’s two World Wars changed the Middle East.
Chapter 6: Zionism and the Modern State of Israel: This chapter begins with a look at Palestine after the Roman era. Next there is a brief history of the European Zionist movement, and early Jewish migrations to Palestine. The chapter covers the establishment of the State of Israel, and the wars between the Jewish state and its Arab neighbors. The Israeli-Palestinian conflicts are also covered.
Chapter 7: Iran: the Islamic Republic: Chapter 7 explains some basic characteristics of Iran, and how Iran differs from its Arab neighbors. Foreign powers have often intervened in Iran’s internal politics. This chapter details Iran’s past relationships with Great Britain, Russia, and the United States. Much of Chapter 7 is devoted to the Islamic Revolution of 1979 and the Iran hostage crisis. There is also a brief summary of President Khatami’s years in office, and an introduction to President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.
Chapter 8: The Story of Saudi Arabia: Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Osama bin Laden, and the birthplace of fifteen of the nineteen 9/11 hijackers. Saudi Arabia is also significant as the home of Wahhabi Islam, and the site of Islam’s two holiest sites—Mecca and Medina. In Chapter 8 you will find the story of the House of Saud, and some of the problems that confront the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Chapter 9: Iraq Before Saddam Hussein: Before Iraq was known as “Iraq,” the country made up three provinces of the Ottoman Empire. This chapter presents the history of sectarian conflict in Iran, and the violent struggles that shook the country before Saddam Hussein rose to power. This chapter ends with the creation of the Iraqi Ba’athist state, and Saddam’s years as the subordinate of Hasan al-Bakr.
Chapter 10: Saddam Hussein’s Iraq: Saddam Hussein consolidated his grip on the Iraqi government in 1979. This chapter delves into all of Saddam’s major crimes, invasions, and blunders, including the 1990 invasion of Kuwait. The Iran-Iraq War of 1980-1988 was one of the most significant events in Iraq’s recent history. This war is therefore covered in depth; and the chapter necessarily spends some time on the other side of Iraq’s eastern border---in Iran.
Chapter 11: Islamic Fundamentalism and Global Terror: Why does Islamic extremism exist, and how did it become such an influential force in the Middle East? This chapter looks at the leaders and founders of militant Islam: Hassan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, Ayman al-Zawahiri, and Osama bin Laden. This chapter examines the motivation and tactics of these men. 9/11 and its aftermath are included.
Chapter 12: Beyond the Middle East: the Clash of Cultures: Confrontations between secular Western-style democracy and militant Islam are not limited to the Middle East. Chapter 12 looks beyond the Middle East to examine Islamist conflicts in Asia and Europe. The chapter explores the Koranic origins of jihad, and the fundamental differences between Western and Islamic values.
Copyright 2005 Beechmont Crest Publishing
